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Amikacin is an aminoglycoside antibiotic that was first synthesized in 1972 by researchers at the Tokyo-based pharmaceutical company, Sankyo. I have not been able to find the names of the individuals involved in its discovery. It was initially developed as a more potent and less toxic alternative to other aminoglycosides, such as gentamicin and kanamycin. Amikacin was approved for medical use in the United States in 1984 and has since been used to treat a wide range of bacterial infections, including those caused by gram-negative organisms that are resistant to other antibiotics.

I am not aware of any specific controversies related to the discovery of amikacin. However, as with any medication, there have been concerns about the development and use of amikacin. One of the main concerns is the potential for the development of resistance to the antibiotic, which can occur when the drug is overused or misused. This is a common issue with many antibiotics, as bacteria can evolve to become resistant to the drugs designed to kill them. Additionally, amikacin can cause certain side effects, such as hearing loss, kidney damage, and allergic reactions, especially with prolonged use or high doses. It’s important to use antibiotics like Amikacin only when it is really necessary and under the guidance of a healthcare professional.

Amikacin was first approved for medical use in the United States by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1984. It was licensed for the treatment of serious infections caused by gram-negative bacteria that are resistant to other antibiotics. It was also made available and used in other countries including the United Kingdom around the same time or shortly after. Since then, it has been used in the treatment of a wide range of bacterial infections, and is still available by prescription today.

According to the BNF, amikacin is an aminoglycoside antibiotic that is used to treat serious infections caused by gram-negative bacteria, particularly those that are resistant to other antibiotics. It is usually given by injection or infusion into a vein, and is usually reserved for use in hospital-acquired infections or for patients who are unable to take other types of antibiotics. The BNF also states that amikacin should be used with caution in patients with kidney or hearing problems, and that regular monitoring of blood and urine tests is required to check for side effects.

Drug misuse in Columbia has a long and complex history, dating back to the early days of the drug trade in the country. In the early 20th century, Columbia was a major producer of marijuana, but it wasn’t until the 1970s and 1980s that the country became a major player in the global cocaine market.

The rise of the Medellin and Cali cartels in the 1970s and 1980s brought unprecedented levels of violence and corruption to the country, as these criminal organizations fought for control of the lucrative drug trade. The Medellin cartel, led by Pablo Escobar, was particularly notorious for its brutal tactics, including bombings, assassinations, and kidnappings.

As the drug trade in Columbia continued to grow, so too did the problem of drug addiction and misuse. According to a report from the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), the number of people using illicit drugs in Columbia more than doubled between 2000 and 2010, with the majority of users consuming cocaine.

The Colombian government has made efforts to combat drug misuse, including implementing a controversial “Plan Colombia” in 2000, which was primarily focused on reducing the cultivation of coca, the plant used to make cocaine, through aerial fumigation and manual eradication. However, this approach has been criticized for causing harm to both people and the environment, and for failing to address the root causes of drug cultivation.

More recently, the Colombian government has shifted its focus to a more holistic approach to addressing drug misuse, including increasing access to treatment and rehabilitation services, and implementing programs to support alternative livelihoods for farmers who previously relied on cultivating coca.

Media stories and examples of drug misuse in Columbia can be found in various sources, including newspaper articles, documentaries and movies. For example, the Netflix series “Narcos” is a fictionalized account of the rise of Pablo Escobar and the Medellin cartel, and the impact their drug empire had on Columbia and the world. The documentary “Cocaine Cowboys” provides a detailed look at the history of the cocaine trade in Miami and its connection to the Colombian cartels.

Academic research on drug misuse in Columbia can be found in journals such as the “Drug and Alcohol Dependence” and “Addiction.” A particularly relevant study is “Drug trafficking, violence and social capital in Medellín, Colombia” by A. Gaviria, E. Pérez and J. Guerrero, which examines the relationship between drug trafficking, violence and social capital in Medellín, the city that was once the epicenter of Pablo Escobar’s criminal empire.

In conclusion, drug misuse in Columbia has a long and complex history that is closely tied to the rise of the drug trade in the country. The Colombian government has implemented various strategies to address the problem, but it remains a significant issue. Media and academic sources provide insight into the history and ongoing impact of drug misuse in Columbia.

References:

• UNODC, World Drug Report 2011 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.11.XI.6)
• A. Gaviria, E. Pérez and J. Guerrero, “Drug trafficking, violence and social capital in Medellín, Colombia” in Journal of Development Economics, vol. 82, no. 2, pp. 393-407, 2008.
• “Cocaine Cowboys” documentary directed by Billy Corben, 2006
• “Narcos” Netflix series created by Chris Brancato, Carlo Bernard, and Doug Miro, 2015-2017

Drug misuse in Mexico has a long and complex history, with roots dating back to the pre-Columbian era. The indigenous peoples of Mexico used a variety of psychoactive substances, including peyote, mushrooms, and tobacco, in religious and medicinal practices. According to research by anthropologists such as Peter T. Furst (1992), these substances were used in religious rituals and also to communicate with the spirit world.

During the colonial period, the Spanish brought their own forms of drug use to Mexico, including the use of alcohol and opium. However, it was not until the 20th century that drug misuse in Mexico began to become a significant social and public health problem.

In the early 1900s, Mexico was a major producer of opium and marijuana, and these drugs were widely available. However, it was not until the 1960s and 1970s that drug misuse began to escalate in Mexico. This was due in part to the increasing availability of drugs, as well as changes in social and cultural norms that led to a greater acceptance of drug use. According to a study by the Mexican government (SEDRONAR, 2019), the use of marijuana, cocaine, and other drugs increased significantly during this time period, reflecting the changes in social norms and the availability of drugs.

In the 1980s and 1990s, Mexico became a major transit point for drugs headed to the United States, and this led to a significant increase in drug-related violence and crime in the country. The government attempted to combat this problem by launching a series of anti-drug campaigns, but these efforts were largely ineffective. According to research by the Mexican government (SEDRONAR, 2019), drug-related violence increased during this time period, as organized criminal groups fought for control of the drug trade.

In recent years, the situation in Mexico has continued to be complex. The government has taken steps to address the problem of drug misuse, including increasing law enforcement efforts and implementing public health and harm reduction programs. However, these efforts have been hindered by ongoing drug-related violence and corruption in the country. According to a report by the Congressional Research Service (CRS, 2021), the Mexican government has been criticized for its heavy-handed approach to combating drug trafficking, which has led to human rights abuses and a high level of violence.

Media coverage of the drug problem in Mexico has been extensive, highlighting the human cost of the drug war, as well as the corruption and violence that is often associated with the drug trade. For example, the New York Times has reported on the brutal violence inflicted by drug cartels on communities throughout Mexico (Londoño, E., 2019). The Guardian has reported on the corruption and human rights abuses that have resulted from the Mexican government’s heavy-handed approach to combating drug trafficking (Guardian, 2020).

In summary, the history of drug misuse in Mexico is a long and complex one, with roots dating back to the pre-Columbian era. Over the centuries, the country has struggled with the problem of drug misuse, and despite efforts to address it, the situation remains complex and challenging.

References:

Furst, P. T. (1992). Hallucinogens and Culture. San Francisco, CA: Chandler & Sharp Publishers.

SEDRONAR (2019). National Survey of Drug, Alcohol, and Tobacco Use in Mexico. Mexico City: Secretariat of Health.

CRS (2021). Mexico’s Drug Trafficking Organizations: Source and Scope of the Threat. Congressional Research Service.

Krauss, M. (2018). The War on Drugs and the Politics of Narcotics Control in Mexico. New York: Routledge.

Ríos, V. (2013). Drug War Capitalism.

The Philippines has a long history of illegal drug use and trafficking, dating back to the early 20th century. According to the Philippine Drug Enforcement Agency (PDEA), the first known instance of illegal drug use in the country was in 1907, when opium and marijuana were introduced to the Philippines by Chinese immigrants. These drugs were primarily used by the Chinese community and were not widely adopted by Filipinos until the 1970s and 1980s.

During this time, the Philippines became a major transit point for illegal drugs being smuggled into other Southeast Asian countries and beyond. This was due to its extensive coastline and porous borders, which made it easy for smugglers to smuggle drugs into the country. Additionally, the Philippines has a large number of islands, which made it difficult to monitor and control the flow of illegal drugs.

In the 1990s, President Fidel Ramos launched a campaign against drugs, but it had little impact. In 2016, President Rodrigo Duterte was elected on a platform that included a promise to crack down on illegal drugs and crime. Since taking office, Duterte has launched an aggressive “war on drugs” that has led to thousands of deaths and widespread human rights abuses. The tactics used by the Philippines National Police (PNP) and other security forces have been widely criticized by human rights organizations and international bodies, including the United Nations.

Human Rights Watch reported that the Philippines police have killed thousands of suspected drug users and dealers in a wave of extrajudicial executions that began in July 2016. The UN special rapporteur on extrajudicial killings, Agnès Callamard, has said that Duterte’s war on drugs could constitute crimes against humanity.

Despite the ongoing efforts of the government, the drug problem in the Philippines remains a significant issue. The Philippines has one of the highest rates of methamphetamine (shabu) use in the world, and the illegal drug trade continues to fuel corruption and violence in the country. In 2021, the Philippines had one of the highest rates of methamphetamine (shabu) use in the world, with an estimated 3.7 million users, according to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC).

References:

• Philippine Drug Enforcement Agency (PDEA)
• Human Rights Watch (HRW)
• United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC)
• UN special rapporteur on extrajudicial killings, Agnès Callamard

Drug misuse in Japan has a relatively short history compared to other countries. The use of opium and other drugs was largely limited to foreigners in Japan until the late 19th century, when Japanese soldiers and traders began to use drugs while abroad. It was mainly used for recreational and medical purposes.

After World War II, Japan experienced a period of economic growth and modernization, which led to an increase in the use of drugs, particularly stimulants like amphetamines, which were widely used by factory workers and students. These drugs were also used to help people cope with the stress of Japan’s rapid economic growth. In the 1950s and 1960s, Japan’s government implemented strict drug laws, such as the Narcotics Control Law of 1951, and launched a campaign against drug use, which led to a decrease in the use of drugs.

However, in recent years there has been a resurgence in the use of drugs, particularly new psychoactive substances (NPS), and Japan’s government is once again taking steps to address the issue. NPS are synthetic drugs that have similar effects to traditional drugs like marijuana, cocaine, and methamphetamine, but are not yet banned by Japan’s drug laws. There have also been concerns about the growing use of prescription drugs for non-medical purposes in Japan.

According to the National Police Agency of Japan, in 2018, the number of people arrested for drug offenses was around 18,000, which showed an increase of around 10% compared to the previous year. However, this number is still relatively low compared to other developed countries.

Overall, Japan has a low rate of drug use compared to many other countries, but the government is concerned about the trend of increasing drug misuse and is taking steps to address the issue.

References:

• “Drugs and Crime in Japan” by National Police Agency of Japan
• “Drug Abuse in Japan” by The Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare
• “Drug use in Japan: a growing concern” by The Japan Times
• “Drugs in Japan: Current situation and trends” by United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC)

Drug misuse in India has a complex history, shaped by a variety of cultural, economic, and political factors.

One of the most notable examples of drug use in ancient India is the use of opium. According to historical records, opium was used in India for medicinal and recreational purposes as early as the 16th century. The British East India Company began exporting opium from India to China in the 18th and 19th centuries, which led to widespread addiction and social problems in China.

In the 20th century, drug misuse became a significant issue in India, particularly in urban areas. The widespread availability of drugs, coupled with poverty and social unrest, led to a rise in drug addiction and related crime. The use of opioids, such as heroin and opium, became particularly prevalent in the 1960s and 1970s.

In response to this problem, the Indian government implemented a number of laws and regulations aimed at controlling the production, distribution, and sale of drugs. The Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act of 1985, for example, criminalized the possession, production, and sale of certain drugs. Despite these efforts, drug misuse remains a significant problem in India today. The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) reports that the most commonly used drugs in India include opioids, cannabis, and amphetamines.

In recent years, there has been a growing concern about the use of synthetic drugs, such as fentanyl, which has led to a rise in overdose deaths. Additionally, there has been a growing problem with prescription drug abuse in India, particularly with prescription opioids.

Overall, the history of drug misuse in India is complex and multifaceted, shaped by a combination of cultural, economic, and political factors. Despite government efforts to control the problem, drug misuse remains a significant issue in India today, with high rates of addiction and related health issues.

References:

• United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. (2020). World Drug Report 2020. Retrieved from https://www.unodc.org/wdr2020/
• Government of India. (1985). Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act, 1985. Retrieved from https://indiacode.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/6278/1/Narcotic_Drugs_and_Psychotropic_Substances_Act.pdf
• National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences. (n.d.). Substance Abuse in India. Retrieved from https://www.nimhans.ac.in/substance-abuse-in-india/

Drug misuse has a long history in Australia, with the use of opium and other substances for recreational purposes dating back to the colonial era. In the 19th century, opium was widely used in Australia, both legally and illegally. This led to concerns about the negative effects of opium use on individuals and society, and in 1906 the government passed the Poisons Act, which aimed to control the sale and use of opium.

In the 1970s, there was a significant increase in heroin use in Australia, particularly among young people in urban areas. This led to a government crackdown on drug use and trafficking, including the implementation of strict laws and law enforcement efforts such as the National Campaign Against Drug Abuse (NCADA) in 1985. This campaign focused on reducing demand for illicit drugs through education and public awareness campaigns, as well as increasing the penalties for drug offenses.

In the 1980s and 1990s, there was a rise in the use of amphetamines and other stimulants, leading to further government action. The National Drug Strategy (NDS) was developed in 1985 and aimed to reduce the harm caused by drug use through a combination of supply reduction, demand reduction and harm reduction strategies.

In recent years, there has been an increase in the use of prescription drugs, particularly opioid painkillers, and concerns about their potential for misuse. According to the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, the number of deaths from opioid overdose in Australia has more than tripled between 2007 and 2018. Additionally, there has been a rise in the use of synthetic drugs, such as “ice” (crystal methamphetamine), and concerns about their impact on users and communities.

Overall, the history of drug misuse in Australia has been marked by ongoing efforts to address the problem through a combination of law enforcement, education, and treatment. The National Drug Strategy 2010-2015, the National Ice Action Strategy and the National Action Plan on Ice and Other Stimulants are examples of the government plans to tackle the drug misuse problem. The Australian government also provides funding to various organizations and community groups to provide education, treatment, and support services to people affected by drug misuse.

References:

• Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (2019). Opioid-induced deaths in Australia. Retrieved from https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/illicit-use-of-drugs/opioid-induced-deaths-in-australia/contents/summary
• National Drug Strategy (2009-2019). Retrieved from https://www.health.gov.au/initiatives-and-programs/national-drug-strategy
• National Ice Action Strategy (2015-2018). Retrieved from https://www.health.gov.au/initiatives-and-programs/national-ice-action-strategy
• National Action Plan on Ice and Other Stimulants (2018-2022). Retrieved from https://www.health.gov.au/initiatives-and-programs/national-action-plan-on-ice-and-other-stimulants

Drug misuse has been a persistent problem in East Africa for several decades. The region has been a major transit point for illegal drugs, particularly heroin and cocaine, which are trafficked from Asia and South America to Europe and North America. The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) estimates that around 80% of the heroin seized in Africa is destined for European markets, and a significant portion of this transits through East Africa.

In addition to the transnational trafficking of drugs, there has also been a significant problem with the domestic use and abuse of drugs in the region. According to a report by the East African Community (EAC), marijuana is the most widely used illicit drug in East Africa, followed by khat and prescription drugs. The use of khat, a plant native to East Africa and the Arabian Peninsula that is chewed for its stimulant effects, is particularly prevalent in Ethiopia, Kenya, and Somalia.

The abuse of prescription drugs, particularly opioids, has also been on the rise in East Africa in recent years. This is partly due to the availability of these drugs in the region and the lack of effective regulations to control their distribution. A study published in the Journal of Psychoactive Drugs in 2020, reported that opioid abuse is becoming a significant public health concern in East Africa, with a growing number of people in the region becoming dependent on prescription opioids such as codeine and tramadol.

The East African Community (EAC) has been working to address the problem of drug misuse in the region. In 2010, the EAC adopted a regional strategy on drug control, which aims to strengthen regional cooperation on drug-related issues and to address the root causes of drug misuse. However, the implementation of this strategy has been hindered by a lack of resources and political will.

Overall, drug misuse in East Africa remains a significant problem, with the region facing a wide range of challenges related to drug trafficking, domestic drug abuse, and the lack of effective drug control policies.

References:

• UNODC (2020) World Drug Report 2020.
• EAC (2019) East African Community Regional Strategy on Drug Control (2010-2020).
• Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, (2020) Opioid Abuse in East Africa: A Growing Public Health Concern.